Craftsmanship in ancient Ephesus was highly developed, showcasing expertise in areas such as ceramics, metalwork, sculpture, and mosaic making. These crafts held a significant place in the city’s economy and daily life. 

Ceramic Masters

The ceramic masters of Ephesus had become skilled at producing jugs, bowls, oil lamps, and various decorative items thanks to the city’s fertile clay. Potters cleaned and shaped the clay soil and then turned it into a vessel form on a wheel (bench), and afterwards, baked them in kilns. Excavations have uncovered ancient kiln remnants indicating the existence of ceramic production since the earliest periods of the city. The surfaces of products were sometimes decorated using painting, engraving, or stamping techniques; besides everyday items, objects like decorative figurines were also produced. Notably, during the Hellenistic period, Ephesus-type lamps, mass-produced in molds from gray-colored clay, were widely exported. In fact, ceramic vessels and glass items produced in Ephesus became trade goods throughout the entire empire due to their quality.

Stone Masters and Sculptors

The fame of Ephesus stemmed from the intricacy of the stone works adorning the city. Sculptors and stone masters crafted statues, reliefs, and architectural ornaments related to deities, emperors, and prominent figures by processing marble and limestone blocks obtained from quarries. The monumental structures of the city such as temples, theaters, and libraries, along with opulent residences, were renowned for the statues and detailed stone decorations produced by these masters. Gravestone masters also meticulously shaped monuments like steles and sarcophagi erected in necropolises, inscribing scenes from daily life or the deceased’s portrait using relief techniques and records. Stone workshops typically operated in areas with intense construction activities; for example, many sculptors were involved in the construction of the Temple of Artemis and public buildings. The works of these artisans uniquely contributed to Ephesus's cultural heritage by adorning its public spaces.

Glass Masters

Glass masters in ancient Ephesus produced small-scale yet valuable items especially during the Roman Imperial period. In the glass workshops of the city, sand and other materials were melted in high-temperature kilns (~900-1000°C), the molten glass was gathered with long iron rods, then blown or poured into molds for shaping. Through this, varieties of perfume bottles (unguentarium), beads (particularly evil-eye beads), and glass bowls were produced. The numerous beads found in Ephesus are part of the glass bead tradition that continued in Anatolia since prehistoric times. Small containers and ornamental objects manufactured by glass masters were used in daily life by the locals and some special Ephesus glass items were in demand in other cities of the empire. The transparency and colorful varieties of glass items held an important place in the rich perfume and cosmetic culture of the time.

Weavers and Tailors

In Ephesus, weaving existed both as a domestic craft and as a commercial trade. Weavers would weave fabric on looms using yarn spun from sheep’s wool or linen fibers. Ancient sources mention that Ephesus and its surroundings were renowned for their quality textile products. A text tells how the woven items produced in the neighboring city of Hierapolis were transported to Mediterranean countries through the port of Ephesus. On the looms of Ephesus' weavers, loom weights made of terracotta were used to keep the warp threads taut. Archaeological excavations in the city, particularly in the Terrace Houses, have uncovered numerous spinning whorls and loom weights, indicating that weaving was a widespread domestic pursuit. Women usually produced fabric on upright standing looms in a room of the house, while tailors measured and fashioned these fabrics into garments. Traditional attire such as peplos and himation were cut and sewn to fit different body types with the skill of the masters; imported yarns like silk and shiny brocade weaves were even used for luxurious cuts. Ephesus textiles, colored with natural dyes and adorned with various motifs, set fashion trends of the time. Weaving and tailoring formed an important part of the Ephesus economy by meeting the city’s own needs as well as providing export goods.

The Protective Goddess of Ephesus: Artemis

The multi-breasted statue of Ephesus Artemis, a symbol of fertility and abundance, is exhibited at the Selçuk Ephesus Museum. The numerous round objects encircling the goddess's chest were long interpreted as "multiple breasts"; however, it has also been suggested that these could be bull testicles or other symbols of fertility. The dress of the Artemis statue is embellished with figures such as lions, rams, deer, griffins, and bees; the belt features bee motifs, which are emblematic of Ephesus. This design portrays Artemis as the "Mistress of Animals" (Potnia Theron), reflecting her dominion over nature and wildlife.

Unlike her Greek counterparts, Artemis, the supreme goddess of ancient Ephesus, was worshiped as the "Great Mother Goddess of Ephesus." Considered the protector of the city, Artemis represented fertility and abundance. The magnificent Temple of Artemis constructed in her honor was built of marble with the support of the Lydian King Croesus in the 6th century BC and was counted among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The fame of Artemis reached such heights that replicas of her cult statue spread throughout the Roman Empire, extending Ephesus’s renown beyond its borders. Symbols such as the bee and the deer associated with Artemis became part of the city's identity: the bee figure, frequently seen on ancient coins, is linked to the "Melissa" (honeybee) title given to the virgin priestesses symbolizing the purity of the goddess. The deer motif, representing Artemis's aspect as a hunter and her sovereignty over wild animals, frequently appeared in Ephesus's coins and art.

The Foundation Legend of Ephesus: Androklos and the Wild Boar

The founding of the city of Ephesus is narrated through a mythological prophecy and tale of heroism. According to the legend, Androklos, son of the Athenian king Codrus, was seeking a new homeland in Western Anatolia, escaping the Dorian invasion in Greece. When he consulted the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, the oracle prophesied, "A fish and a wild boar will show you the way." Years later, when Androklos and his companions were frying fish at a coastal settlement, a spark from the pan ignited the bushes; startled by the fire, a wild boar suddenly sprang and fled. Androklos immediately pursued and caught the boar, deciding to establish the city at the location indicated by the prophecy. Thus, the city of Ephesus, resulting from this event intertwining mythology with reality, was founded in a place suitable to the wishes of the gods. According to legend, when Androklos later lost his life in a battle against the Carians, a memorial tomb was built in his honor near the Magnesian Gate as Ephesus’s first king. This legend about the origin of the city contributed to the people of Ephesus perceiving their city as a product of divine destiny and under the guardianship of their goddess Artemis. Indeed, the wild boar, which played a role in the founding of the city, became embedded in Ephesus's cultural memory and became part of the city's legendary heritage.

The founding of the city of Ephesus is narrated through a mythological prophecy and tale of heroism. According to the legend, Androklos, son of the Athenian king Codrus, was seeking a new homeland in Western Anatolia, escaping the Dorian invasion in Greece. When he consulted the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, the oracle prophesied, "A fish and a wild boar will show you the way." Years later, when Androklos and his companions were frying fish at a coastal settlement, a spark from the pan ignited the bushes; startled by the fire, a wild boar suddenly sprang and fled. Androklos immediately pursued and caught the boar, deciding to establish the city at the location indicated by the prophecy. Thus, the city of Ephesus, resulting from this event intertwining mythology with reality, was founded in a place suitable to the wishes of the gods. According to legend, when Androklos later lost his life in a battle against the Carians, a memorial tomb was built in his honor near the Magnesian Gate as Ephesus’s first king. This legend about the origin of the city contributed to the people of Ephesus perceiving their city as a product of divine destiny and under the guardianship of their goddess Artemis. Indeed, the wild boar, which played a role in the founding of the city, became embedded in Ephesus's cultural memory and became part of the city's legendary heritage.

Religious Ceremonies and Festivals in Ancient Ephesus

Ephesus was renowned in antiquity for its religious ceremonies and festivals. Especially the Artemisia festivals organized in honor of the city's protective goddess Artemis were among the most magnificent events of the year. During these festivals, processions escorted by priests and priestesses paraded the cult statue of the goddess and sacred objects through the city, symbolically reenacting Artemis's visit to the city. During these celebrations, which were observed with great enthusiasm, music, poetry, dance, and sports competitions were held; the people offered sacrifices and presented offerings to the goddess. The annual Artemis festival in Ephesus was so significant that in 162 AD during the Roman Empire, a decree extended the celebration from a few days to an entire month, making it one of the most magnificent religious festivals of the Province of Asia. During these times, visitors from all over the world flocked to Ephesus: ancient sources indicate that the city's population could swell to three times its normal level during the festival days held in honor of Artemis. Indeed, through the economic and social vitality fostered by the Artemis cult, Ephesus became not only a religious center but also a focal point for cultural and commercial interactions in a fair-like atmosphere.

During Spring, which was recognized in the ancient calendar as Artemis's birthday, special celebrations were held where young girls and boys participated in processions dedicated to Artemis. Even emperors of the Hellenistic and Roman ages valued these festivals; for example, Emperor Commodus named and supported the Ephesus Artemis games after himself. With the religious festivals, the fame of Ephesus Artemis spread throughout the Mediterranean, and visitors to the city had the opportunity to worship and to acquaint themselves with the rich cultural heritage of the city. Thus, the ceremonies dedicated to Artemis in Ephesus became an integral part of the city's identity and collective cultural memory in the ancient world.

The Reflections of Cultural Heritage Today

The millennia-old accumulation of belief and culture in Ephesus continues to leave traces today. Although the Temple of Artemis today is represented only by its foundations and a few remaining columns, its place on the list of The Seven Wonders of the World ensures it still retains its place in memory. Every year, thousands of visitors experience the grandeur of the past by visiting this ancient temple site and the Ephesus Ruins. The statues of Artemis are among the most precious heritage items that have survived to the present: two cult statues known as “Great Artemis” and “Beautiful Artemis” were unearthed during excavations in Ephesus in 1956 and began to be exhibited in the Selçuk Ephesus Museum. While these statues convey the majestic depiction of the city's main goddess to people today, details such as the bee and deer motifs on them show the permanence of ancient symbols. The bee figure, which has become a symbol of Ephesus, continues to live in the city's cultural identity today. Indeed, Ephesus was historically known as the "City of Bees"; the title Melissa (bee) given to the priestesses of Artemis and the bee depictions on ancient coins ensure that this tradition is also remembered in modern narratives.

The foundation legend of Ephesus and the cult of Artemis have directed the historical development of the region for centuries. Even during the Christian era, the strong mother goddess tradition of Ephesus was not entirely erased; the declaration of the Virgin Mary as "Mother of God" at the Council gathered here in 431 is considered by some historians as a reflection of the legacy left by the Artemis cult. 

Today, organizations like the Foundation of Ephesus and community groups like the Ephesian Community keep this rich heritage alive with a creative industries approach, passing down the stories of Ephesus to new generations. Artemis, Androklos, and the other legends of Ephesus continue to inspire artists, writers, and designers. In conclusion, the symbols, mythological stories, and traditions extending from ancient Ephesus to today are still remembered and kept alive. This cultural heritage manifests itself in the identity of modern Ephesus and in the cultural-touristic events in the region, establishing a bridge between the past and the present.

According to legendary narratives, Ephesus (Efes) was founded by the female warriors known as Amazons, and it is believed that its name comes from the Hittite sources' city of Apaša (Apasas), meaning the city of the Great Mother Goddess. Archaeological findings have shown that settlements in the Ephesus area date back to the Neolithic Age (6000 BC). In the 10th century BC, the foundation of the city was laid by Greek colonists of Attic-Ionian descent, replacing the people of the Arzawa Kingdom who lived in the region. In the Classical Age, Ephesus was one of Ionia's twelve cities and became one of the richest cities in the Mediterranean during the Lydian kings' reign. The Temple of Artemis (Artemision), built during this period, became famous as one of the world's Seven Wonders. The foundation of the temple dates back to the 7th century BC, and it was completed as a magnificent marble structure around 550 BC with the support of the Lydian King Croesus (Kroisos).

After the period under Persian Empire's rule, Ephesus was liberated from the Persians by Alexander the Great in 334 BC. One of Alexander's successors, Lysimachos, relocated the city around 2.5 km southwest to its current visited location due to its unhealthy swampy conditions, rebuilding it in the early 3rd century BC. The new Ephesus quickly became one of the Mediterranean's most important trade ports. The city was again referred to as "Ephesus" in 281 BC. In 129 BC, Ephesus came under the control of the Roman Republic following the will of the King of Pergamon and was included in the Province of Asia. Although it experienced some upheavals during the Hellenistic and late Republic periods (e.g., the massacre of Asian Roman citizens by Mithridates in 88 BC and Rome's subsequent revenge), the city regained peace under the Roman Empire.

The imposing facade of the Library of Celsus, built in the 2nd century AD in Ephesus Ancient City. During the Roman Empire, Ephesus lived its most splendid days. Especially in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, the city went through a sort of golden age; during the reign of Roman Emperor Augustus, it was made the capital of the Province of Asia, and its population exceeded 200,000, becoming one of the largest metropolises of its time. During this period of prosperity, Ephesus was filled with monumental structures adorned with marble: its grand theater (with a capacity of ~25,000, the largest ancient theater in Anatolia), magnificent temples, and famous structures like the Library of Celsus.

Ephesus was positioned as a bridge between the Eastern and Western worlds, making it one of the most vibrant centers of trade, culture, and intellectual life during the Roman era. The famous orator Aelius Aristides described Ephesus as the “foremost trading center of Asia” and praised it as an Illuminated intellectual center (for example, the second largest school of philosophy in the Aegean was here). The Temple of Artemis served not only as a religious sanctuary but also functioned as a financial institution of its time: the temple acted as the “general bank of Asia” and provided shelter to those in need of credit. Roman emperors gave special attention to this beautiful city, with some even visiting Ephesus and staying for a while, contributing to its urban development. Aristides, who lived in the mid-2nd century, eloquently highlighted the cosmopolitan structure and prosperity of Ephesus:

“All peoples dwelling between the Pillars of Heracles (Gibraltar) and the Phasis River (in eastern Black Sea) know Ephesus due to the international character of its means of transportation and its complete accommodation facilities. Everyone goes there as if it were their own homeland; it is the general bank of Asia and a sanctuary for those in need of credit.”

Ephesus also played a significant role in the spread of Christianity. In the 1st century AD, Apostle Paul (Saint Paul) came to the city and preached there for about three years, organizing the first congregations of the new faith. It is also said that Apostle John (Saint John) settled in Ephesus with the Virgin Mary and was buried on Ayasuluk Hill at the end of his life. The Church of Ephesus was one of the Seven Churches of Asia mentioned in the Book of Revelation. After Christianity became the official religion of Rome, paganism declined, and the Third Ecumenical Council (First Council of Ephesus) held in 431 became a significant gathering taking important decisions for the Christian world. During this period, the Artemis cult and other pagan beliefs gradually ended; the great temples were abandoned and replaced by churches.

From the 3rd century AD onwards, Ephesus's significance began to wane. The Goths invaded and destroyed the city in 263. Although the city was rebuilt, the alluvium brought by the Küçük Menderes River gradually filled the harbor, leaving Ephesus kilometers inland from the sea, losing its commercial advantage. Although attempts to clean the harbor were made during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, they were unsuccessful. The great earthquake of 614 also caused severe damage to the city, further reducing its remaining importance. With the Arab raids of the 7th century striking coastal cities, the people of Ephesus began moving to the more secure Ayasuluk Hill area (the initial site of the city). During the Byzantine period, the city center completely shifted to the Ayasuluk area, and the name Ephesus was forgotten, with this new settlement being called Ayasuluk. In the early 1300s, the region was conquered by the Turks (Aydinid Principality). In the late Middle Ages, Ayasuluk continued for a time as the capital of the Aydinids and an important port city. However, by the time of the Ottoman period, the harbor was entirely silted up, and malaria outbreaks caused the population to rapidly decline; by the 17th century, Ayasuluk was nothing more than a dilapidated village. Over time, it was deserted and the region became a quiet ruin. Today, the area where ancient Ephesus was located is home to the Selçuk district at the foot of Ayasuluk Hill.

The ruins of Ephesus have attracted travelers for centuries, and scientific investigations began in the 19th century. During the first excavations led by John T. Wood from the British Museum between 1863–69, the foundations of the Temple of Artemis were uncovered. In the following years, many teams, notably the Austrian Archaeological Institute, have brought to light the ancient structures of Ephesus. In 2015, the Ephesus Ruins were accepted into the UNESCO World Heritage list. As of 2024, it hosted over 2.6 million visitors, gaining the title of Turkey’s most visited open-air museum. The Ancient City of Ephesus today remains a unique treasure of history, reflecting the glory of the past in the eyes of both the archaeological world and travelers.

1954

1956

Once upon a time, the world would meet in Ephesus.

With the silk of the East and the olive oil of the West, the spices of India and the wines of Greece… All would change hands at the same dock, in the same marketplace. Because Ephesus was not only an ancient city but also one of the oldest and most vibrant centers of global trade.

The Commercial Golden Age of Ephesus

In ancient times, Ephesus was described as the largest trade and banking center in Asia. The city was a popular stop not only for pilgrims and armies but also for kings, princes, generals, and merchants. The main reason was Ephesus’s location:

It was the gateway of Anatolia to the west.

It formed a crossing point between East and West.

It was the starting point of the Royal Road, which began in Susa and ended in Ephesus.

Its harbor was at the heart of ancient maritime trade. Goods from Persia, Syria, and India were loaded here; products from Greece and all corners of the Mediterranean were unloaded here. Fabrics, spices, olive oil, wine, metals, perfumes, and many more… There was nothing that Ephesus didn’t have.

Throughout the day, sailboats of different sizes would dock and depart; warehouses, storerooms, and shipyards worked tirelessly. With the abundance of trade, the city became a cosmopolitan center:

Ionians, Lydians, Romans, Armenians, and Jews… All would meet here, money changed hands, agreements were made, and languages mingled.

A Sanctuary, A Showcase, A Passage

Ephesus was significant not only economically, but also politically and socially. Thanks to the sanctity of the Temple of Artemis, many people, including kings in trouble, found immunity in this city. This made Ephesus not only a port but also a safe refuge.

Trade in the city was conducted not only through physical goods but also through ideas and cultures. Every visitor brought their language, values, and wisdom. Thus, Ephesus became a center where not only goods but also civilizations exchanged.

Dance in Ephesus is a magical experience that connects thousands of years of history to the present day. Rhythms emerging from the depths of history come alive once again in the enchanting atmosphere of Ephesus. Dance events, carrying traces of ancient rituals and infused with modern creativity, invite visitors on a journey through time to write new stories.

The Deep-Rooted Heritage of Dance in Ephesus

Beyond being merely a form of entertainment, dance in Ephesus has always been a powerful means of expression with social and religious significance. During the Roman period in Ephesus, dance was often an integral part of religious and cultural festivals. For instance, during the annual Artemisia festival, priests and the public would perform enthusiastic parades and ritual dances to honor the goddess Artemis. These performances, held in the majestic theater of Ephesus, demonstrated how dance was skillfully integrated into both sacred ceremonies and everyday life. This dance heritage in ancient Ephesus symbolized cultural identity and social unity; it reinforced beliefs, passed stories from generation to generation, and brought visitors to the city together in a common rhythm.

From Traditional to Modern: The Transformation of Dance in Ephesus

The rich historical heritage of Ephesus continues to inspire contemporary dance projects. Steps echoed in temples and squares in ancient times are reinterpreted today through modern performing arts. At dance events in Ephesus, where traditional meets modern, the motifs of old ritual dances are blended with contemporary choreography. The sacred dances once performed in honor of Artemis now find life in modern dance theaters or open-air performances, reminding the audience of the past while offering an innovative art experience. Thus, dance in Ephesus creates high cultural value works by combining the elegance of tradition with the energy of modern creativity. The spirit of the ancient world is revived with today's dancers; whether in a performance in front of the Library of Celsus or a ballet show on the ancient stage of the Great Theater, you witness a 2000-year-old legacy being applauded by new generations.

The Musical Culture of Ancient Ephesus

In ancient Ephesus, music was an indispensable part of social life. Religious ceremonies, festivals, theater plays, and daily rituals were conducted with music to enhance the atmosphere of the rituals. Archaeological findings indicate that music played a central role in the social and religious life of Ephesus; music was present at almost every event, from temple ceremonies to entertainment. Musicians were typically recognized for both their composer and performer identities and wore special outfits. Their roles in royal households and mentions in inscriptions suggest their revered and high status in society.

Instruments Used

Lyre

The lyre, one of the most common string instruments in the Greek and Roman world, was a small type of harp with a turtle shell or wooden body, two arms, and stretched strings. It was frequently used by poets and minstrels in hymns and poetic recitations and taught to young people in education. The lyre allowed for musical accompaniment across a wide range, from religious ceremonies to banquets.

Kithara

The kithara, a larger and more developed type of lyre, was a string instrument preferred by professional musicians. With a wooden body and seven or more strings, it had a powerful sound output. The kithara was usually played at competitions and concert-like performances and was considered the instrument of virtuoso musicians.

Aulos

The aulos, a double-reed wind instrument, consisted of two pipes. The musician (aulete) could create rich and multi-layered melodies by playing both pipes simultaneously. The aulos was possibly the most used instrument in the ancient Greek world; it was played in theater plays, religious ceremonies, festival processions, and even to keep rhythm during athletes' training. Often associated with the cult of the wine god Dionysus, the aulos added energy to ceremonies with its lively and rhythmic sound.

Tympanon

The tympanon (also known as tambourine or def), a type of frame drum, consisted of a circular frame with leather stretched over it. Especially in rituals of Anatolian-originated beliefs like the goddess Cybele and Artemis cults, it was played by priestesses and devotees to provide rhythm for trance-inducing dances and ceremonies. The vibrant percussion sound of the tympanon was a significant element that increased the excitement in temple rituals and street festivities.

Music appeared everywhere in Ephesus, from hymns pleading with the gods in temples to artistic entertainment in structures like the Odeon. Tragedies and comedies performed in the 25,000-seat Great Theatre of Ephesus were executed with choruses and aulos accompaniment, offering an emotional atmosphere for audiences. In daily life too, music was ever-present: songs were sung with lyre accompaniment at banquets; flute and drum rhythms were heard at street performances. Some musicians traveled from fair to fair as wandering artists, while others were permanent staff in palaces and temples. As a result, the rich musical culture of ancient Ephesus constituted a vital part of both social unity and cultural identity.

Modern Era Music in Ephesus

Today, the ancient city of Ephesus, beyond being a mere archaeological site with its historical atmosphere, hosts international concerts. Especially the iconic Great Theatre of Ephesus has become a venue where world stars perform, thanks to its unique acoustics and grandeur. As part of various cultural and artistic events, particularly the annually organized Izmir International Festival, concerts are held at venues like the Ephesus Ancient Theatre, Celsus Library, and Odeon. These events typically include symphonic orchestras, opera performances, classical music recitals, as well as pop, rock, and jazz concerts. Thus, the ancient city is revitalized with art, offering visitors a music experience intertwined with history.

Among the world-renowned artists who have performed in Ephesus are legends like Sting, Elton John, and Diana Ross. For example, Sting gave an unforgettable concert to tens of thousands of people at the Ephesus Great Theatre on July 2, 1993. This concert went down in history as the first major rock concert held in the ancient theatre; the resonance of modern music on ancient marble tribunals was widely acclaimed. Subsequently, in 2001, Elton John delivered a historic performance in Ephesus, and artists like Ray Charles, Joan Baez, Julio Iglesias, Diana Ross, and Jethro Tull performed concerts in this unique venue during the '80s and '90s. During these concerts, the enchanting atmosphere of the ancient theatre provided a unique backdrop for the artists' performances. Artists often expressed the excitement they felt being on this stage which holds the traces of thousands of years ago.

The impact of these international concerts on Ephesus has been extremely positive. Initially, they have created a major attraction for tourism: music lovers from all over the world have flocked to Ephesus, both to listen to their favorite artists and to see this historical site. Thanks to these concerts, Ephesus has often appeared in the international press, standing out as a cultural brand. The foundation organizing the Izmir Festival (IKSEV) has succeeded in drawing the world's attention to the Ancient City of Ephesus through these events. Many famous artists have included Ephesus in the list of their major concerts, thus securing a special place for Ephesus on the global culture and art map. Consequently, these concerts held in the modern era have highlighted that the ancient city is a living space, serving to preserve and promote cultural heritage by bridging the past and the future.

Ephesus, as one of the most significant port cities of antiquity, held a leading position not only in trade and culture but also in fashion. Clothing was an essential part of daily life, transcending mere practicality to become a powerful symbol reflecting social identity and status. Ancient sources suggest that Ephesus women were quite fond of fashion and the Ephesus marketplace (agora) was overflowing with colorful silk fabrics. Below, the clothing styles of women and men in ancient Ephesus, the types of fabrics used, textile production, and the relationship between clothing and social status are examined under specific headings.

Women's and Men's Fashion in Ancient Ephesus

In ancient Ephesus, both women and men wore garments in line with Greek and Roman fashion of the era. The chiton (khiton), a long, rectangular shirt/tunic, was the basic attire for both genders. Forming a cylindrical garment shape by pinning or buttoning two pieces of fabric over the shoulders, the chiton was a staple. In the Archaic period, everyone generally wore long chitons, while only travelers, soldiers, and artisans preferred knee-length short chitons for practicality. By the Classical period, Ephesus began to exert its influence in fashion; integrating Ionian and Doric elements into clothing, it became fashionable to wear chitons more loosely, spaciously, and draped. During the Hellenistic period, Ephesus remained a trendsetting city. At this time, it became common for women to tie their chiton belts higher, under their busts (high-waisted style) and to wear sleeveless chitons. Especially from the 5th century BC, Ephesus emerged as a fashion leader in Anatolia, influencing other cities in Ionia to follow Ephesian fashion preferences. During the Hellenistic period, the fashion of plain white garments from previous centuries returned to colorful and patterned fabrics, and even transparent textured thin silk garments began to be preferred over wool and linen.

As the main garment, a large cloak called a himation was worn over the chiton, used by both women and men. The himation was a rectangular shawl wrapped diagonally around the body; its ends would drape freely over the shoulders, hanging loosely in the front and back. The peplos was a type of wool garment used primarily by women in the Archaic period, which was folded over at the top to create a fold (before the chiton became more widespread in the Ionian region). Young men, travelers, and soldiers wore a lighter cloak called a chlamys (khlamys); this cloak was rectangular during the Classical period but cut oval in the Hellenistic period, pinned at one shoulder with a fibula. Additionally, a practical garment for workers, slaves, and soldiers was the exomis, a sleeveless, knee-length tunic pinned at the shoulder, leaving one shoulder bare. These garments were the basic clothing of the Greek world and continued to be worn by Ephesians during the Roman period.

During the Roman Empire period, fashion styles in Ephesus were enriched with some new garments. Men in everyday life often wore a tunica (tunic), an undergarment; the tunic was a wool or cotton fabric shirt with short or no sleeves, belted at the waist. Men's tunics should be above the knee, while women's tunics extended to the ankles; a man's tunic reaching the feet was considered inappropriate. Freeborn Ephesian women wore a long dress called a stola over their inner tunics (tunica interior); it was traditional for married women's stolas to have buttons on the sleeve edges. While Hellenistic garments like the chiton and himation were still used in Roman Ephesus, the Roman-specific toga gained importance as the formal and upper-class attire. Young men began wearing a white toga during ceremonies as they entered adolescence, symbolizing their transition to adult status. Common people (especially Greek-origin Ephesians) preferred the simpler pallium over the toga, but for Roman citizens, the toga was a marker of identity.

Fabrics, Weaving, and Dyeing Techniques Used

The main types of fabric used for clothing production in ancient Ephesus were primarily wool, linen, cotton, and silk. The most commonly used material for making garments was fabric woven from sheep's wool. Quality wool, especially exported from the city of Miletos (Milet), was renowned throughout the Mediterranean world. Linen was also a frequently used fabric; fine weaves obtained from flax plants in the Aegean and Mediterranean regions were preferred for their coolness in summer. The highest quality linen fabrics were distributed across the Mediterranean from centers like Laodicea, Tarsus, Damascus, and Alexandria. As a port city, Ephesus had access to the best linen and wool through this commercial network. Cotton, especially during the Roman Empire period, was used mixed with wool to produce tunics as another raw material. Cotton fabrics came from the East (likely India); in Roman textile production, cotton was favored for its soft and light texture.

Silk fabrics, however, were the most luxurious and expensive textile products. Raw silk, originating from China, the homeland of sericulture, was brought to the West over Anatolia, processed here, and sold to Ephesus and the Greek world. Ancient sources note that silk at that time was an exceedingly valuable commodity, akin to the

The nature of Ephesus forms the backdrop that breathes life into the ancient city's stones: alluvial plains stretching from the plain to the sea, shrub-clad slopes, olive groves, and pine-covered hills—all establish a silent dialogue between history and ecology. The fertile soils carried by the Küçük Menderes have supported agriculture for centuries; the wetlands near the coast and the vegetation on the valley slopes have created rich biodiversity that adapts to the rhythm of the Mediterranean climate.

• Vegetation: typical shrubland species like olive, fig, pine (especially Turkish pine), laurel, myrtle, carob, and kermes oak; in spring, it is colored with wildflowers and aromatic herbs (thyme, sage).
  
  
  

• Ecosystem mosaic: wet lowlands at the edge of the coastal delta, agricultural fields, and natural shrubs provide shelter for different creatures at different times of the year; during migration seasons, the area serves as a stopover for various bird species.
  
  
  

• Geomorphology: the plains left behind by the ancient harbor and the surrounding limestone hills offer an opportunity to read both archaeological traces and natural processes together.
  
  

  

The contact established with nature in Ephesus often turns into a listening that begins with the stones. This is best described by the words of a traveler:

“While strolling among the ruins, I ask each column, each marble piece, and each stone: could any of them belong to this unique and famous temple? But all the stones are mute. Not a sound comes from the ruins.” — Traveler Richard

This “silence” is not only the whisper of the past; it is a melody of life sustained by the wind, birds, and plants. The nature of Ephesus, observing the balance between conservation and utilization around cultural heritage, offers visitors peaceful walking routes, flora observation stops, and open-air learning experiences that change with the seasons.

Ephesus Ancient City was an important port city that united the East and the West, and for over a thousand years, it was a lively metropolis with continuous habitation. Although it witnessed various dominions throughout history such as the Lydians, Persians, Hellenistic, and Roman, the daily life practices of its people were generally shaped by Ancient Greek and especially Roman culture. During the Roman period, Greek and Latin were used as the official languages; therefore, today, visitors of the Ephesus ruins often encounter inscriptions in both languages on columns and monuments. The city was constructed in a planned manner: Streets intersected at right angles in a grid pattern, and with advanced sewage systems and public stone toilets, it set the standard of comfort in ancient times. Ephesus, in addition to its monumental structures, provides a unique scene reflecting the daily life of the ancient period with its marketplaces, houses, baths, and streets. Below, elements of daily life extending from market life to home life and social life in Ephesus are discussed with their historical contexts and cultural details.

Home Life: Housing, Food and Drink, and Family Order

The home life of the Ephesians varied according to social status and wealth levels but generally possessed the features of a typical Roman city. Homes were usually built of stone and brick, possessing courtyards and a design that emphasized privacy with no windows facing the street. The Terrace Houses, where wealthy Ephesians lived, were notable for their luxury. The central part of these houses contained an open inner courtyard (peristyle), with rooms positioned around it. The columned galleries overlooking the courtyard allowed for light to enter and added aesthetic beauty to the house. Houses were generally two-story; with living and dining rooms on the lower floor, while bedrooms and guest rooms were on the upper floor. Although the upper floors are now ruined, the remaining lower floor remnants reveal the plan of these spaces.

Heating and plumbing were advanced in Ephesus homes. In the Terrace Houses, a hypocaust system similar to that used in the city's baths, i.e., an underfloor heating system, was employed: Hot air was circulated through terracotta pipes laid beneath the floors and within the walls to heat the homes during winter. These houses also had taps connected to cold and hot water and marble-clad baths. Especially in the homes of affluent families, floors with mosaic tile designs and wall frescoes depicting mythological scenes could be seen; these decorations reveal the luxury and splendor of life in Ephesus. For example, the Dionysus mosaic found in one Terrace House shows the homeowners' devotion to art and religion. Such mosaics and paintings are among the most important evidences carrying the aesthetic tastes and decoration notions of ancient Ephesus into the present.

In wealthy homes, feasts and dinners also served as social events. Guests were entertained in dining rooms called Triclinium surrounded by couches on three sides. Music was common during meals: Guests would sip their wine accompanied by a flute (auloi) or lyre, engaging in conversation about philosophy, poetry, or city gossip. Wine was usually diluted with water and sometimes mixed with honey, hence special mixing vessels (krater) were kept in the homes. Table service was provided by the household slaves; in wealthy homes, trained slaves would be responsible for the wine cellars and kitchen, serving the guests in accordance with etiquette. While family members sat at the table, servants and slaves would usually eat separately or on floor cushions. This hierarchical order also reflected the domestic structure of ancient society.

The daily roles of women and children were determined according to the structure of the society. During the Ancient Greek period in Ephesus, women mostly assumed domestic roles, with limited public space and education opportunities. Girls were typically not sent to school, learning skills such as housework, weaving, and sewing under their mothers' supervision. Meanwhile, boys were educated in reading, writing, music, and sports from ages 6-7. However, this changed with Roman rule; girls too began to attend school alongside boys. In Roman-period Ephesus, schools taught subjects such as history, literature, logic, astronomy, arithmetic, philosophy, and mythology, providing both genders with a comprehensive education. At home, mothers were responsible for child care and managing the household. Daily tasks like cleaning, shopping, and meal preparation were carried out by women, while families in better economic conditions employed servants for most of these duties. Artifacts such as loom parts and needles found in Ephesus suggest that clothing was produced at home by women, meeting the family's garment needs through home production. Women also attended water needs, visiting street fountains or wells daily, creating opportunities for social interaction among neighboring women.

In Ephesus society, the family structure was under the influence of Roman law. While the father was considered the head of the family, the mother was the central figure managing the household. A newborn child's survival was never guaranteed; infant mortality was high due to prevalent illnesses. Additionally, in cases of births believed to be cursed according to ancient beliefs, families had the right to reject the child (in some sense abandon or kill). In later periods (during the crisis and decline years of the Roman Empire), as incidents of selling newborns as slaves increased due to economic hardships, the state had to legalize and regulate this practice. Despite these harsh realities, on an ordinary day in Ephesus, children played in the streets with wooden toy cars, rag dolls, or clay balls. The city's wide streets and temple courtyards also served as venues for children's running and play. Families would take evening walks around the temple, complete the day by chatting with neighbors in small courtyards in front of their homes. The daily life of Ephesus was a rich experience where familial warmth and urban mobility intertwined.

Baths and the Culture of Cleanliness

Baths were indispensable places Ephesians visited not only for cleansing but also for socializing and relaxation. During the Roman period, baths were a significant part of daily life, open from morning till evening. Ephesus contained several monumental bath complexes such as the Great Bath (Harbor Bath), the Scholastica Bath, and the Varius Bath. These bathhouses featured sections for hot, warm, and cold baths (caldarium, tepidarium, frigidarium) along with changing rooms and gymnasium areas where sports were performed. Women and men used the baths at different times of the day: From the first seven hours after sunrise, baths were open free of charge for women and children, and later in the day, men could use the baths for a small fee. This practice, introduced by Roman Emperor Caracalla as part of the empire-wide regulations, created a bath culture respecting social class and gender balance.

During bath visits, not only bathing occurred, but also entertainment and conversation. Masseurs providing massage services, small groups arranging musical performances, or storytellers could be found in Ephesus baths. After cleansing in the hot water pools and cooling in the cold ones, Ephesians enjoyed chatting with friends in the bath's garden accompanied by fruit and wine. The remains of an ancient toilet at the Scholastica Bath illustrate an interesting social custom of the period: These public toilets composed of side-by-side marble seats served as a meeting point where people continued conversations even while attending to their needs. With Ephesus's developed sewer infrastructure, these toilets were continuously cleaned with flowing water, carrying waste out of the city, thus maintaining hygiene at a very high standard by ancient standards.

An additional social aspect of the baths was that they hosted parties and entertainments. Especially on festive days, musical and dancing entertainments were organized in the spacious halls of the baths, and feasts sponsored by wealthy patrons were held. For instance, before the traditional Artemis festival, people gathered in the baths to cleanse; after bathing and applying fragrant oils, they would flock to the city's sacred areas. In all these aspects, the bath culture in Ephesus was central both in terms of bodily cleanliness and social communication.

Ephesus and its surroundings (the Küçük Menderes plain, Selçuk–Ayasuluk line) have been the heart of agricultural production since ancient times due to its fertile alluvial soils and Mediterranean climate.

Antiquity: The Olive–Grape–Grain Trio

Olives and olive oil were the primary products, resonating with the Artemis cult's symbol of “fertility”; oil was used in both cooking and rituals. In addition, viticulture was widespread; wine was an export product through the port, alongside the domestic market. Wheat–barley was the staple food for daily bread and porridge; the plain was devoted to grain, and the slopes to vineyards and olives.

In large estates, the labor of slaves and tenant/sharecropper (colonus) system were used; family labor was prevalent in small plots. Migrant workers were employed during harvest time for seasonal work. Irrigation and infrastructure were supported by channels, dams, and basic terracing of the Küçük Menderes.

Middle Ages–Ottoman Period: Continuity and Diversification

While olive–grape–grain continued, figs, sesame, legumes, and spices/medicinal herbs (thyme, sage) became widespread. Labor by farmers and sharecroppers became prominent on waqf lands and farms; vineyards and olive groves were operated by family labor.

Today: Diverse Market Products and Seasonal Labor

In the plain: cotton, corn, vegetables (tomatoes, peppers, squash), peanuts, and citrus pockets form the basis of agriculture. On slopes and terraces: olive groves, vineyards; also, figs and pomegranates are grown. Beekeeping (thanks to maquis–pine cover) and aromatic plants (experiments with thyme, lavender) provide additional income. With the climate crisis, water management, drip irrigation, drought-resistant varieties, and enhancing soil organic matter are critical agendas.

Everything flows... This phrase resonates with the voice of Heraclitus of Ephesus, echoing beyond time. Ephesus is not merely a city of stones and columns, but it is also a place where thought was born, where reason and inquiry found courage. Philosophy is a way of life, a quest, and a resistance in these ancient lands.

The Philosophical Legacy of Ephesus

Heraclitus, born in Ephesus in the 6th century BC, was one of the first philosophers to try to understand the essence of the universe, influencing not only his own era but the entire history of humanity. He was nicknamed the "dark and weeping philosopher" throughout the Aegean world. This philosopher, who argued that the universe is in constant flux, a play of opposites, spoke with wisdom beyond his time.

Centuries later, Heraclitus would be recognized as the founder of modern philosophy, and the famous German thinker Nietzsche would say of him:

“The world is always in need of truth, therefore it is always in need of Heraclitus.”

The ideas born on these lands have shaped not only the ancient world but also modern thought. The streets of Ephesus, walked by Heraclitus, still bear the traces of thinkers pursuing questions and curious spirits.

In Raphael's famous fresco "The School of Athens," Heraclitus is depicted alone, leaning his elbows on a marble block, thoughtful and melancholic. His eyes are cast downward, his brows furrowed, his lips carrying the weight of a heavy inner world. He does not engage in dialogue with other figures; the image of the dark philosopher is embodied in this solitary stance. It is thought that Raphael modeled this figure after Michelangelo—thus emphasizing both the physical and mental depth of Heraclitus with artistic weight.

Daily Life and Design in Ancient Ephesus

The concept of design in the ancient city of Ephesus was evident not only in the magnificent architectural structures but also in everyday items and interior decoration. The Ephesians prioritized the interior layout of their homes over their exterior appearance; they adorned their walls with frescoes depicting nature scenes, mythological themes, and depictions of daily life. On the floors, mosaics composed of colorful stone, glass, and ceramic pieces were used. These mosaics, covering the floors of homes, baths, and other spaces, were considered indicators of wealth and grandeur. Ranging from mythological figures to scenes of daily life, and motifs of animals and plants, these designs reflected the aesthetic taste and lifestyle of the people of ancient Ephesus. Design in Ephesus was intertwined with the lifestyle of the society, playing both a functional and an artistic role.

Materials and Aesthetic Functionality

In Ephesus, everyday design products were commonly made from materials such as wood, metal, ceramics, glass, and stone. Most household furniture was made of wood; however, even this simple material was adorned aesthetically using carving and inlay techniques. For instance, even the legs of an ordinary table could be carved with animal figures, richly complemented by fabric covers and embroidery. Beds (kline couches) and divans were made of wood, onto which wool-stuffed cushions and embroidered covers were placed for comfort. On floors, sometimes woven or leather rugs and woven carpets were laid to add both warmth and decoration. In addition to wood, materials like ivory, bronze, glass, and marble were also used in interior decoration; from wall ornaments to furniture coverings, these valuable materials met functionality with aesthetics in a variety of areas. Even everyday utensils contained ornate examples like bronze kitchen vessels parallel to this richness. The purpose of design was to ensure the items served their functions while also appealing to the eye.

Symbols and Motifs

Cultural and religious symbols held significant importance in the design of ancient Ephesus. Symbols attributed to the city's patron goddess, Artemis, were frequently used: For example, the symbol of the bee, which became a symbol of Ephesus and even appeared on coins minted as a symbol of democracy in the city. The figure of the deer, the sacred animal of Artemis, was one of the most commonly seen motifs on coins; from the Hellenistic period to the Roman period, the motif of the deer showed continuity on Ephesian coins. The deer was sometimes depicted carrying or standing beside Artemis, symbolizing the protective nature of the huntress goddess. The bee figure was also valued as a motif representing abundance and spirituality—having a special place in the rituals of the Artemis cult. Furthermore, images belonging to the Dionysos cult could be found in home mosaics and other decorations. Particularly in the mosaics of rich Ephesian homes, lively motifs like Eros’ chariot drawn by panthers, roosters, peacocks, vine leaves, grape clusters, and portraits of Dionysos and Ariadne were used. These motifs added an artistic atmosphere to the home by referencing mythological stories, and also reflected the beliefs and tastes of the homeowner. In addition, inscriptions and epigraphs were also part of the design; writings on tombstones or votive stones were often processed with embossed embellishments and frame motifs, making the writing itself a decorative element. In short, the language of design in ancient Ephesus expressed the beliefs, status, and aesthetic understandings of society visually through symbols and motifs.

Everyday Items and Interior Design

The items used in the daily life of Ephesus society drew attention not only to their functionality but also to their elegant designs. The most important piece of furniture was the kline (divan/bed), which was both a couch for reclining to eat and a flashy decorative item, taking the prime position in homes. In wealthy dining areas, usually arranged in a U shape with three klines, there would be single-legged service tables (trapeza) made of bronze or marble beside them. These tables, with single-legged column-shaped bodies, could be decorated with various reliefs and small statues. Houses also included backed and backless chairs, folding stools, and wooden chests (used as clothing and item storage). At first glance, these seemingly simple items achieved aesthetic character through detailed carving motifs, fabric upholsteries, or metal accessories.

Pottery and ceramic containers produced for everyday use, plates, and pitchers reflected the design understanding of the era. Some bowls and vases featured botanical decorations or deity figures, and even embossed oil lamps depicting the Ephesus Artemis could be found. Especially terra-cotta lamps, which were the most common lighting tools in Ephesus, featured motifs such as stars, flowers, and animals, serving both as a light source and ornamental items. For instance, a Terra-cotta lamp featuring the multi-breasted Artemis figure in its central medallion showcased how a religious symbol could converge with an everyday item. In wealthy homes, bronze appliques, lamp decorations, and candlesticks added splendor to lighting. Among women’s personal items, there were mirrors with ivory handles, engraved jewelry boxes, and glass cosmetic bottles; these objects were designed to be both functional and ostentatious. Indeed, excavations at the Ephesus Terrace Houses have revealed a plethora of jewelry boxes, cosmetic containers, and weights for scales like everyday items. Archaeological finds demonstrate that every type of household item, from kitchenware to decorative objects, contained aesthetic details. In summary, daily design elements in ancient Ephesus served as narrative tools reflecting the social status and cultural values of their users.

In ancient times, Ephesus was not only a center of commerce and faith but also a highly vibrant city in the field of arts. The people and the rulers spared no expense in beautifying their city and particularly the Temple of Artemis, the city's symbol, showing great importance to art. Thanks to this, many sculptors and painters found patronage in Ephesus and adorned the city's public spaces and home interiors with their works.

Sculpture Art

The marble copy of the Ephesus Artemis statue (2nd century AD), with its depiction of multiple breasts symbolizing the goddess's fertility, draws attention. Sculpture art in Ephesus developed especially around the Temple of Artemis. This temple, considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, was adorned with works by the most famous sculptors of the time. Ancient sources mention that the religious sculptures of famous Greek sculptors like Polykleitos, Pheidias, Kresilas, and Phradmon were exhibited in the temple. Even the gilding of the temple columns with gold and silver gave an impressive effect, intertwining art and architecture. Particularly, the figures of Amazon female warriors, seen as the legendary founders of the city, became a popular sculpture subject in the temple. According to legend, five master sculptors in Ephesus held a competition to create the most beautiful Amazon sculpture; Polykleitos's Amazon statue was chosen first, as each of them placed their own work in the second place during the voting. This anecdote indicates that sculptors competed to create the best works and that there was artistic competition in Ephesus. One of Ephesus's unique works was the cult statues of Artemis. The Ephesus Artemis statues, adorned with numerous round protrusions symbolizing the goddess's fertility, are iconic works reflecting the fusion of Anatolian traditions and Greek aesthetics. Some Roman-era copies of these marble cult statues have survived to this day and are exhibited in the Ephesus Museum in Selçuk. In public spaces, there were many sculptures from temples and agoras to monuments along the street edges. For example, along the Curetes Street of the city, fountains, monuments, and statues of gods gave the city an open-air museum quality. This rich sculpture heritage was an indication of the value the people of Ephesus placed on art.

Painting Art

Wall paintings (frescoes) and floor mosaics within a rich

The Ancient City of Ephesus is known as one of the first cities in history built entirely of marble. In this ancient city, structures were typically constructed using stone, brick, and wood, with stone—particularly marble—being deemed the most important of these materials. Despite having many marble quarries in its vicinity, how the Ephesians first discovered this valuable building material is a subject of curiosity. One of the ancient writers narrates the story of this discovery as follows: While constructing the Temple of Artemis, the Ephesians initially considered bringing marble from the islands of Thasos and Paros due to the anticipated expenses. Just around this period, an unexpected incident occurred. Pixodoros, a shepherd from Ephesus, was grazing his goats on the mountain when two of them started to fight. One goat suddenly attacked the other, which evaded and the attacking goat, unable to stop, slammed into the surface of a rock. This collision caused a large spark, and a piece of rock broke off and fell to the ground, revealing an unprecedented beauty of white marble. The shepherd excitedly ran to the city to show his discovery to everyone and narrate the event. This news created great joy in Ephesus. The shepherd found the marble, had their name changed to Evangelos, meaning "good news." Thus, the rich marble deposits just 9 km from Ephesus (around today's Belevi, at the foothills of Sağlık Mountain) were discovered. The monumental structures of the city, including the Temple of Artemis, were built in the following years with marble obtained from these nearby quarries.

Residential Architecture

The interior of a wealthy Roman-era house, known as the Terrace Houses in Ephesus. The floor is covered with mosaics, the lower parts of the walls are adorned with marble slabs, and the upper parts are decorated with fresco paintings. In the central courtyard, a small water basin (impluvium) or the remains of a fountain structure can be seen.

In Ephesus, houses and small-scale structures like shops were typically built with stone and brick, covered with a wooden roof and tiled. After a special stucco plaster was applied to the walls, they were decoratively painted with vibrant frescoes or given a marble appearance. Especially the floors of Terrace Houses belonging to wealthy families were paved with colorful mosaics, with walls covered with real marble slabs up to a certain height. Besides the fresco decorations depicting mythological scenes, small niches, and even decorative fountains were found in the interiors of these houses. The Terrace Houses, open to visitors in Ephesus today, still reveal these rich details of ancient residential architecture.

Monumental Structures and Construction Methods

Ephesus's magnificent public buildings (temples, libraries, agoras, etc.) were constructed with significant effort, over extended duration, and at great expense. The marble blocks required for these large structures were initially cut in quarries and transported to the construction site via wheeled carts drawn by animals. The raw blocks extracted from the quarry were brought to the carving workshops located near the city, where craftsmen shaped them according to the architects' specifications. The finest marble quarries around Ephesus were primarily concentrated around Belevi Village. Indeed, even relief figures carved into the rock by stone masons cutting marble 2000 years ago have been identified in an ancient quarry in the Belevi region. This indicates that the traces left by Ephesus's masons in the marble quarries have reached us today.

Placing the processed and prepared marble blocks at the construction site required great engineering skill. Especially lifting massive blocks weighing 10-15 tons to heights of several meters required various crane and rope systems. Ancient sources convey two main methods implemented for this purpose:

• Projection (Handle) Method: As the stone block was being hewn, a special projection approximately 20-25 cm long was left at its center, and then thick ropes were tied to this projection for lifting the block upwards with cranes. These projections acted as a handle, enabling the ropes to grip the stone.
  
  
  

• Groove (Channel) Method: Instead of leaving a projection on the stone block, U-shaped channels (grooves) were carved into opposite edges, and ropes were placed and secured within these recesses before lifting the block upwards. This allowed the ropes to grip the stone, ensuring that the lifting operation was carried out safely.
  
  

Additional measures were applied for the secure interlocking of adjacent stones as the structure's skeleton was formed and marble blocks were stacked. Blocks placed side by side were connected with dovetail-shaped iron clamps or rods placed in grooves left between them. On overlapping layers, special sockets were carved into the top surface of lower blocks, and protuberances (like dowels) that would fit perfectly into these sockets were made at the bottom of the blocks above them. All this clamping and dowel voids were opened with fine channels to the outer surface of the stone blocks. After the blocks were placed, molten lead was poured inside from these channels to strengthen the metal clamps, thus effectively riveting the blocks together. This method made it possible for enormous marble pieces to be interlocked as a single entity without the use of mortar, making them earthquake-resistant.

A drawing (above) and archaeological remains (below) showing the metal clamping system used in ancient construction engineering to bind marble blocks. Greek and Roman architects inserted "Π" shaped iron clamps into special recesses cut into the sides of the blocks and stabilized them by pouring lead over them, holding the walls together. This way, large structures have stood for thousands of years.

This advanced clamping technique made it possible for the construction of mortarless and extremely solid walls in structures built in ancient cities such as Ephesus. For instance, many of the interlocked blocks in today’s Library of Celsus and the Great Theatre still remain in their original state. Ancient architects created a flexible yet unbreakable connection between the blocks using iron clamps and lead, granting the structure resilience against tremors and external factors.

Temple of Artemis: Transporting and Erecting the Columns

A reconstruction drawing of the grand Temple of Artemis in Ephesus. This monumental temple built entirely of marble became famous as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The dozens of columns and superstructure beams of the building were mounted using advanced engineering techniques of the time.

The installation of marble columns and beams of the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus showcases one of the most impressive engineering solutions employed in the ancient period. Each giant column shaft, approximately 20 meters high, was encased in a cylindrical wooden enclosure with wheels attached to its sides for transport to where it would be erected in the temple. Thus, the columns could be rolled along the road from the quarry to the temple site horizontally, relatively easily. While stacking and erecting the column segments was relatively straightforward, lifting the massive architrave blocks weighing tons to a height of 20 m was extremely challenging. For this purpose, ancient craftsmen developed a brilliant method: large architrave blocks were first placed inside cylindrical robust wooden cases and surrounded with sand. Then, these cases were rolled up inclined wooden ramps built around the temple up to the top of the column capitals (capitals). When the desired point was reached, sand was slowly emptied from the holes drilled at the bottom of the cases, and as the sand decreased, the architrave block was lowered in a controlled manner to fit onto the top of the columns precisely. This method allowed enormous architrave blocks to be positioned atop tall columns without damage.

The fact that the Temple of Artemis was constructed entirely of marble and these innovative assembly techniques demonstrate the peak reached by architecture in the ancient world. Ephesian architects and engineers succeeded in using the most advanced methods of their time to build this magnificent temple, described as rising to the clouds. Consequently, the structures in Ephesus took their place among the most durable and magnificent architectural works of their time due to the quality of materials and the masterful techniques applied and their fame persevered for centuries.